Hedonic Tasting of Jijona Nougat
“In the blink of an eye, we find ourselves already in the octave of All Saints’ Day. Its curious and varied carousel of panellets, chrysanthemums,
In this short presentation about nougat, we will travel through words, time, and beyond the Mediterranean, since we cannot understand this product without knowing where it comes from in the broadest sense.
To begin, I would like to define what nougat means. If I ask you to imagine a nougat, surely many of you will think of Jijona nougat. According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, nougat is:
«The mass obtained by cooking honey, with the incorporation and kneading of toasted almonds, generally peeled, and egg white. It can be Alicante nougat (hard) and Jijona nougat (soft)». A little further down, the Food Code continues as follows: «For the purposes of this Regulation, various nougats are considered to be masses obtained by kneading, with or without cooking, almonds that may be totally or partially substituted by any other dried fruit, peeled or with skin, raw or toasted, and other basic materials and ingredients indicated in point 6.3 with honey and/or sugars in their different classes and derivatives».
But if we walk through our streets and supermarkets in the middle of autumn, we will see that many rectangular boxes say “nougat” and what is inside has little or nothing to do with Jijona or Alicante nougat… or that, directly, it does not even contain dried fruit. Why does this discrepancy exist between what is commonly sold and what is officially defined? Let’s look for the etymology of the word and perhaps unravel the enigma.
Let’s start the journey.
Coromines states that the oldest word was “terró”, as we still call it today in Jijona and other towns, since it resembles “tierra” (earth), that is, a “terrón” (clod) of “tierra” (earth), if you’ll pardon the redundancy. In Naples, in the 18th and 19th centuries, the form “terrone” continued to be used to name nougat. He emphasizes that the most valuable information found in this regard is that offered by Italian sources, due to the fact that Catalan and Italian cultures coexisted closely in the time of Alfonso the Magnanimous. This theory is shared by Luján (1990).
Due to the fact that toasted dried fruits are involved in the production of nougat, the “o” has been assimilated by the “e”, giving rise to the word “torró” and from there passing, even, to other Romance languages such as Spanish, “turrón”, or Italian, “torrone”. This philologist argues that it cannot come from the verb “torrar” (to toast), since the number of nouns in “-ó” derived from a verb is rather scarce. This is also the reason why, probably and according to him, it does not derive from the Spanish “turrar” (1992: 628-630).
The first documented word that alludes to our product is “terró” in the first half of the 15th century in this little song:
Donar-li et dels terronets
e de les neules qui n’havia…
We have, therefore, made the first stop of the trip. We have left from somewhere in the Catalan-speaking area of the Crown of Aragon and have arrived in the Kingdom of Naples. We are between the years 1442 and 1458. But, if we want to be rigorous, we must look at other sources, that is, the Italian sources. In Gli italiani a tavola by Felici Cónsolo, cited by Luján, it is explained that the word “torrone” comes from the term “torre” (tower), since it was with this form that this sweet was served. The dessert at the wedding of Bianca Visconti and Francesco Sforza, in 1441, was the “torrone”, which was already imported to Rome from Cremona, a legend with which the Italians recognize that it is a sweet of Arab origin.
And here appears a destination that is an origin that will accompany us throughout our journey: the “Arab origin”.
We have already seen that the word “nougat” has a Romance origin, but we can debate more about the content of the word —what it means—.
The main ingredients of the most popular nougats, Jijona and Alicante, are almonds and honey. The word almond was already known by the Greeks (amygdále) and the Romans (amygdala). We have not found documentation on the production of nougat by the Romans, but we have by the Greeks. Josep Piera assures that in Greece is “where it is usually said that the first references to nougat come to us” (1994). According to Indro Montanelli in Storia dei greci, cited by Piera himself, “around the stadium a kind of shooting range, cheap sibyls, fire-eaters, sword swallowers, cannon women and stalls with almond nougat were improvised” (1994). Rodríguez provides new data, stating that this quote dates from 662 BC, during the first Olympiad, around the temple of Zeus. We believe that this is a historiographical interpretation that Montanelli makes of the concept. We would have liked to have found the word that Montanelli translates as “nougat”, since we know that it could not be this one because it has a medieval origin, as we have seen. Even so, authors such as Lluís Garrigós point out that this is, rather, the description of a popular sweet in ancient Egypt: toasted almonds mixed with honey and flour —also toasted—; surely, this mixture was identified as the ancient alajú, although we can doubt its original relationship. What we are sure of is that the description, which dates from the 7th century BC, does not correspond to nougat as it is described in the dictionaries of Covarrubias, Autoridades or Terreros y Pando.
Although we have not found these explicit references to nougat, we do know that, in the Roman world, the almond was a symbol of fertility and was thrown at newlyweds… as rice or petals are thrown today. This may be the explanation of why sugared almonds (peladillas) are still offered at weddings and baptisms today. The tradition of sugared almonds is still strongly rooted in Italy and here.
The Romans extended the cultivation of almonds throughout the Mediterranean, but they did not reach all its corners. Those who took care of this meticulous work were the Arabs, with their successive arrivals from the Middle East and North Africa. The Arab culture of the Middle Ages knew how to collect the advances of the cultures prior to its own, improve them and catapult them to all the territories where it had influence. Thus, in One Thousand and One Nights there is talk of desserts very similar to Alicante nougat.
It seems that, during the Muslim domination in the Iberian Peninsula, the custom of making a sweet similar to nougat spread: called alajun or alfajor by the Muslims and jalab by the Christians, according to the Jijona historian Fernando Galiana, Candela Garrigós and texts from the 12th century.
Given that this theory is very widespread, both popularly and in the books consulted, we emphasize that, surely, the Arabs brought nougat already from the first contact with the Iberian Peninsula, that is, from the time of the Umayyads.
In this journey that we are taking through the history of nougat and its ingredients, we are missing the other main leg of our product: honey. The almond has its origin in the Near East, but we can think with good reason that honey has always been in these lands of ours. There have always been bees, many more before than now, and we know that production is ancient. An example that supports this hypothesis is the finding in the Caves of the Spider, in Bicorp (Valencian Country): in them you can see the figure of a woman collecting honey from wild bees; these cave paintings date from the Epipaleolithic. In the case of Jijona, for example, there is a nearby population —Biar— to which its toponymy is attributed to the Latin word apiarium, which means “place of bees”, since the importance of this population in the production of honey during the Middle Ages is undeniable. Other versions indicate that this toponym derives from the Arabic بِئَر (
But we would not be fair if we did not talk about another star product to which an Arab origin is attributed and which they, without a doubt, expanded throughout the Mediterranean: marzipan.
According to Luján, marzipan probably comes from the Arabic term mahsaban, which means “almond and sugar paste and wooden box in which, precisely, this sweet was served”. In different old Catalan texts it appears in this double sense. The myth of Roman-Latin hegemony leads us to think that the concept marzapanus —cited for the first time in 1202— has pushed us to interpret that this word was of Latin origin, although the real etymological origin comes from Arabic. This example helps us to corroborate, once again, that the way of making sweets in the Arab style caught on strongly here in the Middle Ages, as Joanot Martorell confirms when citing marzipan in Tirant lo Blanc in 1490. This time, according to Cónsolo, it was the Sicilians, who already knew Arab sweets, who taught us how to make marzipan to Catalans and Valencians. We took them nougat and they took us marzipan. As you can see, the legacy of the contact between both cultures goes beyond nativity scenes and still lasts to this day.
Other sources explain that it was in the Christian era when almond cake was incorporated into the celebration of Easter, under the name of panis martius (March bread or marzapane in Italian).
Another very popular legend explains that marzipan appeared after the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212). Faced with the absence of wheat, the nuns of the convent of San Clemente de Toledo invented marzipan to appease the hunger of the people of the city. Be that as it may, Toledo marzipan enjoys the protection of the Regulatory Council and is a strongly rooted product.
Another Protected Designation of Origin of marzipan, created in 1996, is found in Germany, in Lübeck, in Schleswig-Holstein, on the way to Denmark. In this last country, together with Norway, kransekage is eaten on special occasions: a kind of pyramidal cake made of marzipan crowns.
As a result of these trips between Sicily and Toledo, the different words with which marzipan is known throughout Europe derive: marzapane in Italian, Marzipan in German, maçapão in Portuguese, mazapán in Spanish and massapà in Catalan. These examples are some of the voices that demonstrate the success of this gastronomic preparation, despite the differences between them.
We have already seen how the first mention of nougat with this same name does not appear until the 15th century, a time when the Arabs had already left all their knowledge in the area of Catalan-Aragonese influence. Returning to the topic at hand, that is, nougat, we later find documentation that certifies that nougat was already a very widespread sweet, even among the upper classes of society at the time. An example of this is shown by the letter from Queen María de Trastámara, consort of Alfonso the Magnanimous, who in 1453 wrote to the Poor Clares of Barcelona asking them to bring her nougat, since it was the best she had tasted and she wanted to send it to her brother Juan II of Castile. This reinforces the idea of the movement of nougat from the Crown of Aragon to Castile.
A century later, the king’s pen, in this case Felipe II, continued to write about this delicious sweet; on this occasion, decreeing that its purchase by his Alicante officials as a gift to managers and lawyers in Madrid should be moderated, since the expense was very important: we see that in Alicante it is already a product of relevant production and consumption and that also in Castile it becomes a product of prestige and exchange. It is said that it was this monarch of the House of Austria who introduced the custom of eating nougat at Christmas in the court.
However, and according to the Jijona native Lluís Garrigós Oltra, the difference between marzipan and nougat was very large, especially with regard to the consumer. We already know that nougat was very widespread during the 15th century, but we have not found a single recipe book… In fact, we do not know what that nougat was like. On the other hand, the same does not happen with marzipan. For example, in the Libro de Cozina by Ruperto de Nola, from 1525, we already find the recipe for marzipan. Therefore, according to the author cited, nougat was consumed above all —although not exclusively— by the humble classes, while marzipan was produced for the wealthy classes. And why did this happen? According to Lluís Garrigós, it was because marzipan contained an ingredient that was very popular but that was very expensive —who would have told us— for the time: sugar. Thus, the fact that there was culinary record regarding marzipan and not in relation to nougat can be identified with the class differences in its consumption, in the ability to leave cultural record of it and in the interest in perpetuating a consumer good based on sugar, a differentiating element and generator of social status.
We have to prepare a bigger suitcase now because we are going even further on a trip!
It is believed that sugar cane is native to New Guinea and that, through the Pacific, it reached India. According to Pliny the Elder, the hardened “tears” that emanated from the sugar cane were called saccharum and simply had medicinal properties. This word comes from the Greek sákkhar, which in turn comes from the Sanskrit çárkarā. In all languages it means “sugar”. Persians and Arabs went further and learned to refine sugar cane, turning its sap into zukkar: also for medicinal and digestive purposes.
As you can see, from this trip we take away the word “sucrose” and the word “sugar” as a souvenir, that is, the cultured and popular form of those tears that Pliny the Elder already spoke of in the 1st century AD, surely in one of the ten volumes of Historia Naturalis. Sugar continued its path through the subsequent Romance languages and others in contact; thus, the voices sugar in English, Zucker in German, zucchero in Italian, sucre in Catalan, azúcar in Spanish or the own sukkar in Arabic are well alive and, in addition, are the subject of debate for other reasons in our days.
Returning to the Mediterranean and placing ourselves again in the Middle Ages, the Arabs set up the first factory to refine sugar on the island of Crete. It became so important that, according to Garrigós Oltra, sugar was used as a standard of exchange. From this island, refineries gradually spread throughout the different territories of the Mediterranean, mainly thanks to the help of Venetians and Genoese who, as good merchants, had a good nose for business. It even reached Callosa d’En Sarrià, a town near Jijona. It is important to identify these refineries as paradigmatic spaces: their existence denotes a certain capacity for accumulating surpluses and a control of the elements of exchange… It is worth pointing this out because, in the Middle Ages, the “gift economy” (the one based on material exchanges) was very relevant and helps us to understand a good part of the feudal system.
We know that confectioners from La Mancha were already using sugar in the 17th century, since for their marzipan preparations they only admitted Valencia almonds and white sugar. Nowadays, to make Turrón de Jijona D.O., only certain types of almonds are allowed, which are grown in the Valencian Community: such as the Marcona almond, which we will talk about later, or the Valencia almond, among others.
Marzipan was consumed in the court and the people, if they had enough money, could go to buy it at the confectioneries, which owe their origins to pharmacies. Apothecaries used sugar to make preparations with spices and nuts—such as ginger, pine nuts, almonds, cinnamon, cloves, licorice, and starch (the so-called diapenidion, which was the precursor to our cough drops). They also attributed soothing properties to sugar for stomach pain, which attracted the attention of the nobility, who demanded candied preparations to take care of their stomachs after copious banquets… In fact, desserts, in our culture, are sweet. Maybe they were right… or maybe they just wanted to finish with a sweet aftertaste. In the 16th century, confyt was, specifically then, nuts or small spices covered in sugar—candied, in short. We know, however, that at the end of those great banquets, figurines made with sugar and other ingredients were served, which makes us suspect that they were already marzipan figurines…
Until the 18th century, anyone who wanted to consume sweets could go to the confectioneries and buy a clean and exquisite sweet—which was called marzipan—or wait for the fairs and porrats to buy nougat. We have evidence that in the 16th century, the people of Jijona were already going to neighboring towns such as Elche to sell their nougat. We know that, around this time and always according to Garrigós Oltra, nougat still did not contain sugar and was sticky, although delicious. Thus, it seems that nougat would still be like the alajú that we have mentioned previously; now, however, being called nougat. Therefore, the nougat of that time was a mixture of nuts, cooked or not, with honey and a little sugar. Lluís Garrigós suggests that this sugar could be cooked, thus creating a very viscous product. As we have said, it would be a product similar to alajú, which had a dark appearance compared to marzipan but light compared to the current nougat, since the honey is cooked. The trade of nougat maker was mostly combined with that of farmer and was only possible in times of surplus production. In Jijona there were no factories because nougat was made at home: a characteristic of the time in which we find ourselves, in which the Domestic System was the order of the day. It is worth emphasizing that in the centuries of transition towards capitalism, family units acted as units of reproduction, production, consumption and subsistence.
The nougat makers, seeing how well the confectioners were making a living and suffering the honey crisis of the 18th century in the surroundings of Jijona, decided to introduce a change in the recipe of their ancestral sweet. They did not look for new beekeeping areas, but chose to reduce the amount of nuts and honey and introduce sugar. At that time, and thanks to the fact that the Portuguese had begun to plant sugar cane in Brazil and the Spanish copied them, the price of sugar began to fall. With this change they achieved two things: to reaffirm the texture of the nougat—more solid and less viscous—and to ennoble the product.
Although things started to go better with this change, the people of Jijona saw that they had to differentiate themselves from the rest of the nougat makers and confectioners: this is how specialization began. Of all the possible nuts to make nougat, they chose the finest and the one that still has the greatest acceptability today: the almond. And the changes did not end there. The people of Jijona discovered that by adding egg white, the nougat compacted more and could be transported much better from fair to fair. They had finally achieved a clean, transportable and delicious product! Alicante nougat was born. Alicante nougat was still a very popular sweet that appealed to all social classes… but it continued to present a major obstacle: it was very hard, and the working classes suffered from a lack of teeth. Another big problem that the nougat makers of Jijona had was the lack of their own sales premises, since they continued to sell on the street: a very common practice of the time due to the importance of fairs, but which made things very difficult in terms of comfort and reference.
In any case, the production of nougat was increasing. We are now in the 19th century. The people of Jijona dared to go beyond the nearby towns and approached Valencia and Madrid… but in both capitals they came up against the opposition of the confectioners who, as we have already explained, had been established for centuries and paid their taxes… The people of Jijona, on the other hand, set up their stall, sold the product and collected it after a few days to return to the town. In the case of Valencia, some nougat makers managed to integrate into the confectioners’ guild and thus be able to develop their activity. In the case of Madrid, the problem even reached the ears of the king, who gave permission to the people of Jijona to sell their good nougat at Christmas, since Charles IV did not want to miss out on that sweet. That is why we eat nougat at Christmas.
Little by little, the first nougat factories appeared in Jijona and the great solution to the problem of the hardness of the nougat: the arrematat. This process of crushing the nougat can be placed in the mid-19th century: there are notarial records in which the mortar for chopping nougat appears. But the appearance of factories understood as buildings built specifically to make nougat, and not as the house itself in which the nougat makers lived—as had been done until then—is a process that was carried out from the 20th century onwards. Possibly, the first factory built as such was that of Primitivo Rovira, who built it between 1902 and 1908. Among all of them, collectively and anonymously, and after several attempts to crush the Alicante nougat, they found that it was not enough and invented a new machine: the boixet. That is, a giant mortar arm that heats the Alicante dough previously pressed and, at the same time, as if it were an alioli, continues to crush: it heats it and the master nougat maker turns it. Here the phase reversal occurs, that is, the nougat mass perfectly integrates the oil that until that moment escaped from the mass itself. Thus, we see how the Jijona nougat that we know today was born in the 19th century.
We haven’t moved much from the map for a while now. Let’s get ready again because the 19th century is a turbulent century full of adventures. With the Industrial Revolution at the end of the century, the appearance of many factories, the specialization of the trade and the travels of nougat are encouraged. Many small nougat makers moved to the most prosperous towns in the coldest point of autumn to supplement their economy based on agriculture… although there was everything. Many started in small municipalities in Catalonia, Madrid, the Valencian Community or the north. The manufacturers also packed their bags and arrived at Industrial Exhibitions such as the one in Brussels in 1848 or the one in Smyrna—which was still Greece—in 1849.
It is in this century when the nougat makers of Jijona continue to stick together, showing in our brands the mythical “legitimate nougat of Jijona” to differentiate ourselves from other nougat towns [show our box]. When this effect passed, many of us incorporated our ancestors dressed as people from Jijona into our brands and continued to push by registering our own brands. Jijona grew and the industrialists of the town began to be encouraged to set up factories overseas, for example in Cuba, where they found sugar and many people “fans” of the product… But, with the Cuban Revolution, Fidel Castro nationalized the nougat factories. These ended up disappearing, but not before promising all Cubans a bar of nougat per inhabitant. In Spain, it is the time of the Franco dictatorship and, during the sixties, the town of Jijona turns to “the Cuban order”, while taking the opportunity to hide letters for the Cubans inside the nougat cans… we can imagine some types of messages… The large order was not kept by a single factory, but was distributed among the different factories in the town according to their production capacity, a practice that we find very noble and healthy.
Many of the small nougat makers, like us, began to establish ourselves in the host towns, complementing our economic activity with that of ice cream. It seems that we are a town that likes a variety of trades! Many of us also spend part of the year in various locations: at least Jijona and the host town. Not everyone is lucky enough to have the nougat trip in the same town where they are going to make ice cream. My mother, for example, went to three places to school: Reus, Jijona and Cieza.
The diaspora of people from Jijona in the 20th century is very large and factories began to be set up everywhere outside the town. There are people from Jijona everywhere, such as Oran, in Algeria, or Perpignan. Other nougat makers from other towns began to imitate and appropriate the nougat of Jijona, so great efforts were made during the century to reach, in 1991, the “Regulatory Council of the Specific Denomination Jijona” and obtain in 1996 the European recognition constituting the PGI. It should be said, however, that since the end of the 19th century many nougat makers began to compete with the people of Jijona, something that appears in the press of the time and that we can see in the signs of the establishments of the time: they claimed the “Legitimate of Jijona”. In 1903 the “Guild of Nougat Makers” was founded, a group of businessmen to defend their interests, promoting the appearance of a brand registered by them. This Guild lasted until the twenties of the 20th century, when it lost strength and ended up disappearing. Once the Civil War was over, on August 18, 1939, the “Regulatory Council of the Exclusive Specific Denomination Jijona” was registered to defend its interests. From this Council was born the one we mentioned above: the “Regulatory Council of the Specific Denomination Jijona”. In addition, it was the second Regulatory Council in Spain, after that of the D.O. Rioja.
The 20th century, with its technological advances, brought great innovations in the field of sweets, but year after year the strong roots of Jijona nougat in Christmas were demonstrated and—who would have thought—the confectioners began to adapt their products to the nougat formats. The popular meaning of the word nougat diversified and already in the 21st century we call nougat any sweet that has a rectangular shape and that can be sold vacuum-packed…
The first years of the 21st century have been turbulent for small nougat makers like us: we have faced the economic crisis of 2007, the globalization of Christmases from other places… That is, there has been an assimilation of other products: gingerbread cookies, panettone… The questioning of our own authenticity by attempts of foreign appropriation and, most serious of all, climate change. This last factor is affecting us a lot in the sense that every year it costs us more to find our suitable raw materials: Marcona almond and rosemary honey.
The Marcona almond is considered the best almond in the world. It originates in the mountains of Alicante and is early flowering and late harvesting, facts that expose it for a long time to the inclemencies of the weather. Today it is planted in Tarragona, in Castellón, but the origin is in the mountains of Alicante. It has a thick shell that protects it, something that the farmer does not like because it gives him less yield than others with a thin shell. From different research institutes, new varieties have been found that are more suitable for yield, but not for the production of high-quality nougat. Its sweetness and elegance are unbeatable. We will never find even one bitter Marcona! The Japanese and Americans have already realized this, and it is now an export almond for snacks to these countries. And it is becoming increasingly difficult for small producers like us to ensure good harvests. The same thing happens to us with rosemary honey: dry springs and extreme temperatures in the mountains do not always guarantee us rosemary honey harvests, since it is mountain honey and not from cultivated fields. But our nougat cannot settle for any honey: it is either rosemary, a very fine honey that combines perfectly with the Marcona, or it is, at most, orange blossom honey.
So, facing these challenges, twelve small producers already installed in Catalonia but who continue to produce in Jijona have joined together to defend and promote our trade. We are the Associació de Torroners Xixonencs de Catalunya, also known as XICS Torroners.
Special thanks:
Escola Oficial d’Idiomes, Vall d’Hebron, Barcelona
Neus Anglès Borràs, history student and nougat maker
Bernardo Garrigós Sirvent, official chronicler of Xixona
Lluís Garrigós Oltra, chemist by profession and historian by passion
Hanan Touil, administrative and passionate about Arab sweets
Nàdia Gutiérrez Robles, Latin teacher
Teresa Verdú Jerez, pharmacist and nougat maker
Ángela Verdú Jerez, nougat maker and gelaora
Saturio del Cacho Mira, nougat maker and gelaor
Montse del Cacho Verdú, nougat maker
Cristina del Cacho Verdú, food technologist
Zoraida Roselló Espuny, filmmaker and bon gourmand
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